THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

 THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

Date/Month, Year	Event
1688	Glorious Revolution in Britain; English Parliament seized power from the monarchy
1707	Act of Union formed between England and Scotland, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain
1714	George I became the king of Great Britain
1715	Louis XV became the king of France
1740-1748	War of the Austrian Succession
1756-1763	Seven Years War
1776	American Declaration of Independence
1789	French Revolution occurred
1797	Napoleon invaded Italy; Napoleonic wars began
1798	Failed revolution led by Wolfe Tone and United Irishmen in Ireland
1801	Ireland forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom
1814	First Treaty of Paris established a lenient peace with France
1814-1815	Fall of Napoleon; Vienna Peace Settlement; Napoleon escaped Elba but defeated at Waterloo
1815	Treaty of Vienna hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich; New European order established after Napoleon's defeat
1821	Greek struggle for independence began
1830s	Period of economic hardship in Europe characterized by population increase, unemployment, and rising food prices
1831	Giuseppe Mazzini established Young Italy
1832	Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire
1830-1848	The Age of Revolution; Liberalism and Nationalism movements, including Greek War of Independence
May 1848	Frankfurt Parliament convened
1848	Revolutions across Europe demanding constitutions, national unification, and rights
1849-1878	Reign of Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont-Sardinia
1852	Camillo Cavour became premier of Sardinia-Piedmont
1859	Piedmont and France defeated Austria; Piedmont annexed Lombardy
1859-1861	Unification of Italy
1861	Kingdom of Italy announced; Victor Emmanuel II became king of Italy
1861-1888	Reign of King William I of Prussia
1866-1871	Unification of Germany
1867	Prussia created the North German Confederation
1870	France declared war on Prussia; Italy annexed Rome
1870-1871	Franco-Prussian War
1871	German Empire formed; Germany annexed Alsace and Lorraine
Late 19th century	Nationalism aligned with imperialism, contributing to tensions leading to World War I
1905	Slav nationalism gathers force in the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires

Key Term	Definition/Explanation
Absolutist	A government/system with no restraints on power; historically, a centralized, militarized, and repressive monarchy.
Utopian	A vision of a society so ideal that it is unlikely to exist in reality.
Plebiscite	A direct vote by the people of a region to accept or reject a proposal.
Suffrage	The right to vote in elections.
Conservatism	Political philosophy stressing tradition, institutions, customs, and preferring gradual change over rapid reform.
Feminist	Awareness and advocacy for women’s rights and equality in social, economic, and political spheres.
Republic	A state where supreme power rests with the people, and the head of state is elected (e.g., India).
Democratic Republic	A government where rulers are elected by the people.
Socialism	Economic system where production and distribution are owned/shared by society’s citizens.
Absolute Monarchy	Monarchy where all power and responsibility arise from the monarch (e.g., Louis XVI of France).
Aristocracy	A class considered superior in rank, wealth, or intellect.
Nation-state	A group sharing common descent, language, history, within defined borders under one government.
Nationalism	Loyalty, devotion, and collective identity towards one’s nation.
Universal Suffrage	The right of all adult citizens to vote.
Ottoman Empire	Turkish empire ruled by the Caliph, head of Muslims both spiritually and temporally.
Ideology	A system of ideas reflecting a social or political vision.
Ethnic	Related to common racial, tribal, or cultural origins that a community identifies with.
Allegory	Expression of abstract ideas through persons or things, having both literal and symbolic meanings.
Romanticism	Cultural movement promoting national sentiment and collective heritage as the foundation of a nation.

Frédéric Sorrieu’s 1848 print "The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics" is a symbolic and idealistic portrayal of a future world of independent, democratic nation-states, living in harmony under the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. It reflects the liberal and nationalist sentiments that were sweeping through Europe at the time.

·        In 1848, a French artist named Frédéric Sorrieu imagined a world where all countries would be free, equal, and democratic.

·        To express his vision, he created a series of four prints. The first print is the most famous and powerful.

·        This print shows people from different parts of Europe and America marching in a long line.

·        These men and women, from all classes and ages, are shown offering respect to the Statue of Liberty.

·        The Statue of Liberty is shown as a female figure, holding the torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.

·        On the ground, there are broken crowns and thrones, symbolising the end of monarchies and absolutist rule.

·        Each group of people is dressed in their national costumes and carries their national flag, representing different nations.

·        Leading the procession are the United States and Switzerland, which were already democratic nation-states by that time.

·        France follows, easily recognised by the revolutionary tricolour flag.

·        Behind France are the German people, carrying a black, red, and gold flag – representing their hope to unify the many German states into one democratic nation.

·        Other nations like Austria, Poland, Hungary, England, Ireland, and Russia are also part of the procession.

·        Above the scene, Christ, saints, and angels look down from the sky, symbolising peace and brotherhood among all nations.

THE MESSAGE

·        Sorrieu's print shows his dream of a world where nations are formed through democracy, not monarchy.

·        It promotes the idea of ​​liberal nationalism, where people rule themselves and are united by shared identity.

·        The print expresses hope for the fall of empires and the rise of free, united nation-states.                                      

THE RISE OF NATION-STATES IN 19TH-CENTURY EUROPE

·        In the 19th century, nationalism became a powerful force in Europe.

·        People began to believe that they should live in a nation where they shared a common identity, culture, language, and history.

·        This belief led to the fall of multi-national empires and the creation of modern nation-states.

·        A nation-state is a country where citizens, not monarchs, hold power and share a strong sense of unity.

·        This unity was not natural but was created through struggles, efforts by leaders, and the participation of ordinary people.

ERNST RENAN’S IDEA OF A NATION

·        Ernst Renan was a French philosopher who gave a famous lecture in 1882 titled "What is a Nation?"

·        He rejected the idea that a nation is based only on common language, race, religion, or territory.

·        He believed a nation is formed by shared history, sacrifices, and achievements.

·        A nation is held together by a common past and the desire to live together in the present and future.

·        A nation’s existence is like a daily plebiscite – people choosing each day to stay united.

·        Renan supported the idea that people must have the right to decide which nation they belong to.

·        He opposed forced control or annexation of any region against its people’s will.

·        According to him, the existence of many nations ensures liberty and prevents the rise of one global ruler.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE IDEA OF THE NATION

·        Nationalism first clearly emerged during the French Revolution in 1789, when sovereignty shifted from the monarchy to the people.

·        The revolution declared that the people formed the nation and would shape its future.

·        To build a sense of collective identity, revolutionaries introduced:

o   The concepts of la patrie (fatherland) and le citoyen (citizen)

o   A new tricolour French flag

o   Elected National Assembly

o   National hymns, oaths, and memorials

·        A centralised administrative system was created with:

o   Uniform laws

o   Abolition of internal customs duties

o   Standardised weights and measures

o   Promotion of the French language

·        The French Revolution also aimed to spread liberty across Europe, inspiring people in other countries to rise against monarchies.

Napoleon and the Spread of Nationalism

·        In the 1790s, French armies carried nationalist ideas into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, and more.

·        Napoleon Bonaparte spread revolutionary reforms even though he became an emperor.

·        His Napoleonic Code (1804):

o   Ended privileges based on birth

o   Ensured equality before law

o   Secured property rights

o   Simplified administration, abolished feudalism, and improved transport

·        These reforms helped peasants, workers, and businessmen, encouraging economic unity through uniform systems and currency.

Reactions to French Rule

·        Initially, French rule was welcomed in many areas as a sign of liberty.

·        However, people soon opposed it due to:

·        Heavy taxation

·        Censorship

·        Forced military service (conscription)

·        The dream of liberty often clashed with the reality of French control, leading to resentment and resistance.

THE GERMAN ALMANAC COVER BY ANDREAS REBMANN (1798)

·        In 1798, journalist Andreas Rebmann designed the cover of a German almanac.

·        The cover showed two images side by side:

·        The French Bastille being stormed by revolutionaries.

·        A similar fortress representing despotic rule in the German province of Kassel.

·        The cover included the slogan: “The people must seize their own freedom!”

·        Andreas Rebmann lived in Mainz and was part of a German Jacobin group inspired by the French Revolution.

EUROPE AFTER THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA, 1815

·        The Congress of Vienna was held in 1815 after the defeat of Napoleon to restore peace in Europe.

·        European powers aimed to redraw the map of Europe and restore old monarchies. The main goals were to prevent any one country from becoming too powerful again and to maintain balance of power.

·        Several important changes were made:

o   The Austrian Empire was strengthened and given control over northern Italy.

o   The Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by merging the old Dutch Republic and Belgium.

o   The German Confederation was formed, a group of 39 small German states under Austrian influence.

o   Poland was divided mainly between Russia, Prussia, and Austria.

·        The Congress aimed to suppress revolutionary ideas and maintain monarchies across Europe.

·        Despite this, ideas of nationalism and democracy continued to grow, eventually leading to future revolutions.

THE PLANTING OF THE TREE OF LIBERTY IN ZWEIBRÜCKEN

·        The painting is by Karl Kaspar Fritz, a German artist.

·        It shows the French army occupying the town of Zweibrücken in Germany.

·        French soldiers wear blue, white, and red uniforms.

·        The soldiers are shown as oppressors:

o   They take a peasant’s cart.

o   Harass young women.

o   Force a peasant to kneel.

·        A Tree of Liberty is being planted, with a sarcastic plaque in German that says:
“Take freedom and equality from us, the model of humanity.”

·        This sarcastic message mocks the French claim that they were liberators fighting against monarchy.

THE COURIER OF RHINELAND

·        This is a cartoon showing Napoleon as a postman returning to France after his defeat at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813.

·        As he walks, letters fall out of his bag, each labelled with the names of territories he lost.

·        The image symbolises Napoleon’s retreat and the loss of control over European lands.

It reflects how his empire began to collapse after the defeat, especially in the Rhineland region.

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THE MAKING OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

·        In the mid-1700s, modern nation-states did not exist in Europe.

·        Countries like Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons, each ruled independently.

·        Eastern and Central Europe were ruled by autocratic monarchies with diverse populations.

·        People in these regions spoke different languages, had different cultures, and often did not share a common identity.

The Habsburg Empire – A Patchwork Empire

·        The Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) was a mix of many regions and ethnic groups:

o   German-speaking in Austria, Tyrol, and Bohemia.

o   Italian-speaking in Lombardy and Venetia.

o   Magyar speakers in Hungary, along with other dialects.

o   Polish-speaking aristocracy in Galicia.

o   Other groups: Bohemians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Roumans (Romanians).

·        The only unifying factor among these diverse groups was loyalty to the emperor.

·        Such diversity made political unity difficult, and there was no sense of shared nationalism.

This sets the stage for understanding how nationalism developed in the 19th century, as people began to seek unity, shared identity, and self-rule, leading to the creation of modern nation-states.

THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE NEW MIDDLE CLASS

·        The landed aristocracy was the most powerful class in Europe, both socially and politically.

·        They:

o   Owned large estates in the countryside and townhouses.

o   Spoke French in high society and diplomacy.

o   Had family ties across different regions through marriage.

·        Despite their power, they were few in number.

·        The majority of people were peasants:

·        In Western Europe, they were tenants or small landowners.

·        In Eastern and Central Europe, large estates were worked by serfs (unfree peasants).

The New Middle Class

·        With the rise of industrial production and trade, towns grew in Western and Central Europe.

·        This led to the rise of a new middle class:

o   Industrialists, businessmen, and professionals.

o   A growing working class also emerged.

·        Industrialisation:

o   Began in England in the late 1700s.

o   Spread to France and German states in the 1800s.

o   Reached Central and Eastern Europe later.

·        The educated liberal middle class played a key role in spreading ideas of national unity and ending aristocratic privileges.

WHAT DID LIBERAL NATIONALISM STAND FOR?

·        The word liberalism comes from Latin liber, meaning free.

·        For the new middle class, it meant:

o   Freedom of the individual

o   Equality before the law

o   Government by consent (not autocracy)

o   An end to absolute monarchy

o   A constitution

o   A parliamentary form of government

·        Private property was considered sacred by liberals.

·        However, political rights were limited:

o   Only property-owning men could vote.

o   Women and non-property holders were denied the vote.

o   Jacobins (briefly) gave universal male suffrage, but Napoleon reversed it.

Economic Ideas

·        Liberals demanded:

o   Free markets (no government restrictions)

o   Abolition of trade barriers between states

·        Example: In German-speaking regions:

o   There were 39 states with different currencies, weights, and customs duties.

o   A merchant had to pay multiple taxes and deal with different measurements (e.g., the elle varied in each state).

 

Economic Unity

·        In 1834, Prussia led the formation of the Zollverein (customs union):

o   Abolished tariffs between member states

o   Reduced currencies from 30+ to 2

o   Boosted trade and movement

·        The railway network helped connect regions economically and supported nationalism.

 

A NEW CONSERVATISM AFTER 1815

·        After Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, European governments followed conservatism.

·        Conservatives aimed to preserve traditional institutions: monarchy, Church, aristocracy, family, and property.

·        They accepted modernisation (army, bureaucracy, economy) to strengthen monarchies.

·        Congress of Vienna (1815) was held to redraw Europe’s map after Napoleon's defeat.

·        Hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.

·        Attended by major powers: Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria.

·        Treaty of Vienna (1815) aimed to restore old monarchies and prevent French expansion.

·        Bourbon dynasty restored in France; France lost all annexed territories.

·        Territorial rearrangements:

o   Netherlands (with Belgium) formed in the north.

o   Genoa added to Piedmont in the south.

o   Prussia got western territories and part of Saxony.

o   Austria got control over northern Italy.

o   Russia received part of Poland.

·        The German Confederation of 39 states remained as set up by Napoleon.

·        Conservative regimes were autocratic and did not allow criticism.

·        Censorship laws imposed to control media and suppress liberal ideas.

·        Liberals were inspired by the French Revolution and opposed censorship.

·        Freedom of the press became a key demand of liberal nationalists.

 

"The Club of Thinkers" (c. 1820 Caricature):

A satirical illustration from around 1820, this caricature depicts a secret society of intellectuals questioning how long free thought will remain permitted. The club enforces strict silence, symbolized by muzzles, reflecting the suppression of speech under conservative rule post-1815. It critiques censorship, autocratic governance, and the frustrations of liberals, ultimately advocating for the importance of freedom of expression in society.

THE REVOLUTIONARIES

·        After 1815, fear of repression led many liberal-nationalists to go underground.

·        Secret societies were formed across Europe to train revolutionaries and spread ideas.

·        Being a revolutionary meant:

·        Opposing monarchies established after the Vienna Congress.

·        Fighting for freedom, liberty, and national unification.

·        Nation-states were seen as essential for achieving true freedom.

 

GIUSEPPE MAZZINI (1807–1872)

·        Born in Genoa, Italy.

·        Joined the secret society Carbonari.

·        Exiled in 1831 for a failed revolution in Liguria (at age 24).

·        Founded:

o   Young Italy in Marseilles.

o   Young Europe in Berne – included youth from Poland, France, Italy, and German states.

·        Believed nations are natural units of mankind.

·        Advocated for a unified, republican Italy – no more fragmented kingdoms.

·        Inspired similar secret societies in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland.

·        Feared by conservatives; Metternich called him “the most dangerous enemy of our social order.”

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THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS: 1830-1848

·        After 1815, conservative regimes tried to restore monarchies and suppress revolutionary ideas.

·        Liberalism and nationalism grew stronger and became connected with revolutions across Europe.

·        These revolutions were led by liberal-nationalists from the educated middle class (teachers, clerks, professionals, etc.).

 

July Revolution in France (1830)

·        The Bourbon monarchy was overthrown by liberal revolutionaries.

·        A constitutional monarchy was established under Louis Philippe.

·        The event sparked revolts in other places like Brussels, where Belgium gained independence from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

·        Austrian Chancellor Metternich famously said: “When France sneezes, Europe catches cold.”

 

Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)

·        Greece had been under the rule of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century.

·        The rise of revolutionary nationalism in Europe inspired the Greeks to start a struggle for independence in 1821.

·        Support for the Greek cause came from:

o   Greeks living in exile

o   Western Europeans who admired ancient Greek culture

·        Poets and artists praised Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and influenced public opinion in favour of the Greeks.

·        Lord Byron, a famous English poet, organised funds and personally joined the war; he died of fever in 1824 during the struggle.

·        The war concluded with the Treaty of Constantinople in 1832, which recognised Greece as an independent nation.

 

THE ROMANTIC IMAGINATION AND NATIONAL FEELING

• Nationalism was promoted not only by wars and revolutions but also through culture, including art, poetry, stories, and music.
• Romanticism was a cultural movement that:
• Emphasised emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings over reason and science.
• Aimed to create a shared collective heritage and a common cultural past as the foundation of the nation.
• Johann Gottfried Herder, a German philosopher:
• Believed true German culture lived among the common people (das volk).
• Promoted folk songs, dances, and poetry to express the spirit of the nation (volksgeist).
• Collecting and preserving folk culture became essential for nation-building.
• French painter Delacroix:
• Created emotional paintings depicting events like the massacre of 20,000 Greeks by Turks.
• His artwork aimed to generate sympathy and support for nationalist movements.
• In Poland:
• The country was partitioned by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and no longer existed as an independent state.
• Karol Kurpinski, a Polish musician, used operas and folk dances (like polonaise and mazurka) to symbolise national identity.
• Language as a tool of nationalism:
• After Russian occupation, Polish was removed from schools and Russian was imposed.
• In 1831, a revolt against Russian rule was crushed.
• Clergy began using Polish in churches and religious instruction as an act of resistance.
• As a result, priests and bishops were jailed or exiled.
• The use of Polish language became a symbol of the struggle against Russian domination.

HUNGER, HARDSHIP AND POPULAR REVOLT

• 1830s were marked by economic hardship across Europe.
• Population growth led to:
• Unemployment – More people looking for jobs than jobs available.
• Migration from villages to cities, resulting in overcrowded slums.
• Small producers in towns suffered due to:
• Competition from cheap machine-made goods from industrialised England, especially in textiles.
• In rural areas, peasants still suffered under feudal dues and obligations.
• A bad harvest or rise in food prices led to poverty and hunger.

1848 Revolution in France

• Food shortages and unemployment led to protests in Paris.
• People built barricades; Louis Philippe was forced to flee.
• A Republic was declared:
• Universal male suffrage (all men above 21 could vote).
• Right to work was recognised.
• National workshops were set up to provide employment.

Silesian Weavers' Revolt (1845)

• Took place in Silesia (Germany).
• Weavers revolted against contractors who reduced their wages.
• Cause:
• Contractors took advantage of the workers’ poverty to pay them very low rates.
• On 4 June 1845, weavers:
• Marched to the contractor's mansion demanding higher wages.
• Destroyed property and plundered cloth from the storehouse.
• The contractor fled and returned with the army.
• In the clash, 11 weavers were shot dead.

 

1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

• In 1848, alongside revolts by peasants and workers, the educated middle class led a revolution demanding constitutional rights and national unity.
• In France, the king abdicated, and a Republic with universal male suffrage was declared.
• In countries without independent nation-states (Germany, Italy, Poland, Austro-Hungarian Empire), liberals pushed for:
• Constitutional governments
• Freedom of press and association
• National unification
• In Germany, middle-class groups elected 831 representatives to form the Frankfurt Parliament in May 1848.
• The Parliament drafted a constitution for a united Germany with a monarchy limited by parliament.
• King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia refused the crown offered by the Parliament.
• Opposition from monarchs and aristocracy grew; the Parliament lost support from workers and artisans.
• Eventually, troops ended the Parliament’s work.
• Women actively participated in the movement but were denied voting rights and only allowed as observers in Parliament.
• Although liberals were suppressed, monarchs realized they had to make some reforms.
• After 1848, serfdom and bonded labour were abolished in parts of Central and Eastern Europe.
• The Habsburg Empire gave more autonomy to Hungary in 1867

The Massacre at Chios

• Painted by Eugene Delacroix, a famous French Romantic painter, in 1824.
• The painting shows a tragic event where 20,000 Greeks were killed by Turks on the island of Chios.
• Delacroix focused on the suffering of women and children to evoke strong emotions.
• He used vivid colours and dramatic scenes to make viewers feel sympathy for the Greeks.

Frankfurt Parliament (1848)

·        In 1848, Germany was divided into many provinces, including Austria and Prussia.

·        The rebellion in Paris in February 1848 inspired revolts across Europe, including many German cities.

·        Conservative governments in Germany fell, and liberals demanded a National Assembly.

·        On 18 May 1848, 831 delegates from across Germany met in the Church of St Paul in Frankfurt.

·        Friedrich Wilhelm IV was elected president of the Assembly.

·        The deputies lacked experience and focused on debating fundamental rights rather than creating a strong central government.

·        The Assembly drafted a Constitution for Germany.

·        Radical political groups attempted to impose the Constitution through civil war but were suppressed.

·        Ultimately, the Frankfurt Parliament failed to unify Germany or establish effective power.

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THE MAKING OF GERMANY  AND ITALY

UNIFICATION OF GERMANY:

·        In the 18th century, Germany was not a single country but a collection of 39 small independent states.
Among these states, Prussia was the most powerful and was ruled by aristocrats called Junkers.
During the Napoleonic Wars, some states disappeared, but many remained independent.
In the 19th century, nationalism grew among the middle class, who wanted to unite all German-speaking regions.
The goal was to create one nation under a single government and constitution.

·        In 1848, the Frankfurt Assembly was held by elected representatives from across Germany.
They proposed a constitutional monarchy and offered the German crown to the King of Prussia.
The King rejected the crown, and the liberal efforts failed due to the monarchy, army, and Junkers.

·        After this failure, Prussia took the lead in unifying Germany under its rule.
Otto von Bismarck, the Chief Minister of Prussia, led the movement. He followed the policy of "Blood and Iron" – using war and diplomacy rather than speeches and ideals.

Wars of Unification under Bismarck

·        Danish War (1864) – Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark to gain control of Schleswig and Holstein.

·        Austro-Prussian War (1866) – Prussia fought Austria over control of these regions.
Prussia won the “Seven Weeks’ War” and signed the Treaty of Prague.
Austria was excluded from German affairs, and Prussia formed the North German Confederation.

·        Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) – Bismarck provoked France into war by supporting a German claim to the Spanish throne. Prussia defeated France at the Battle of Sedan and took over Alsace-Lorraine. This war helped unite the southern German states with the North German Confederation.

Final Step – German Empire Proclaimed

·        On 18 January 1871, German princes, army officers, and Bismarck gathered at the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles. King William I of Prussia was declared Kaiser (Emperor) of the unified German Empire. This marked the official unification of Germany as a powerful nation-state.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY

 

• Italy was divided into many states during the 19th century. Most of these were ruled by foreign dynasties or local kings. For example, the north was controlled by the Austrian Habsburgs, central Italy by the Pope, and the south by the Bourbon kings from Spain.
• Italians were scattered and had different local dialects; even the Italian language was not unified.
• Giuseppe Mazzini, an important nationalist, wanted Italy to become a single republic. He formed a secret group called Young Italy to spread his ideas and encourage people to unite.
• However, the uprisings of 1831 and 1848 failed, so the task of unifying Italy passed to the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, ruled by King Victor Emmanuel II.
• Sardinia-Piedmont’s Chief Minister, Cavour, was a skilled diplomat and politician. He was not a revolutionary but believed unification would help economic growth and political power.
• Cavour made an alliance with France to fight against the Austrian rulers in northern Italy. In 1859, they defeated the Austrians.
• At the same time, Giuseppe Garibaldi, a nationalist leader, led volunteers known as the Red Shirts into southern Italy, including the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, where they gained support from local peasants and expelled the Spanish rulers.
• By 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of a united Italy.
• However, many ordinary Italians, especially peasants, were unaware of the nationalist ideas. Some didn’t even fully understand what “Italy” meant; for example, some thought “Italia” was Victor Emmanuel’s wife!
• Rome was later declared the capital of the newly unified Italy

COUNT CAMILLO DE CAVOUR (1810–1861)

·        Born in Turin on 1st August 1810.

·        Entered military academy at age 10.

·        Important leader in Italian unification and founder of the Italian Liberal Party.

·        Started the Agrarian Association (1842) and newspaper Il Risorgimento (1847) to promote constitutional monarchy.

·        A liberal who believed in free trade, public opinion, and secular governance.

·        Became Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia on 4 November 1852.

·        Reformed taxation, improved currency and railways.

·        Sent troops in the Crimean War (1853) to gain international prestige.

·        Declared Prime Minister of Italy on 17 March 1861, when Victor Emmanuel II became king.

·        Played a key role in modernising and unifying Italy but died soon after, on 6 June 1861.

UNIFICATION OF BRITAIN:

Unlike the rest of Europe, where nationalism developed through popular movements and uprisings, Britain's unification was led by the English elite through political means, often by suppressing the cultural identities of other ethnic groups.

The history of nationalism in Britain was different from the rest of Europe in the following ways:

1. No Single Nation Initially: Before the 18th century, there was no unified British nation. People in the British Isles identified themselves as English, Welsh, Scots or Irish, each with their own culture and political traditions.
2. Gradual Unification, Not Revolution: Unlike many European countries where nationalism emerged through revolutions and uprisings, Britain's nation-state was formed through a long, steady political process.
3. Dominance of England: The English nation, being more powerful and wealthy, slowly extended its control over the other ethnic groups.
4. Act of Union (1707): The Union between England and Scotland led to the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, effectively allowing England to dominate Scottish affairs.
5. Suppression of Scottish Identity:
• Scottish political institutions and culture were repressed.
• Highlanders were banned from speaking Gaelic and wearing traditional dress.
• Many were forcibly evicted from their lands.
6. Ireland’s Forced Inclusion (1801):
• Ireland was divided between Catholics and Protestants.
• England supported Protestant domination.
• After a failed Catholic revolt in 1798, Ireland was forcibly made part of the UK.
7. Promotion of British Identity: A new British national identity was created by promoting:
• The Union Jack (national flag)
• The national anthem: “God Save Our Noble King”
• The English language
8. Subordination of Other Cultures: Welsh, Scottish, and Irish identities were reduced to subordinate partners within the new Britain.

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VISUALISING THE NATION

● Personification of Nations:

·        In the 18th and 19th centuries, artists used female figures to represent nations.

·        This is called allegory, where a country or an idea is shown as a person (not a real woman).

·        Female allegories helped people emotionally connect with the idea of a nation.

● Marianne – Symbol of the French Nation:

·        Marianne was the female allegory of France.

·        She stood for Liberty, the Republic, and people’s nation.

·        Symbols associated with Marianne:

o   Red cap (cap of liberty)

o   Tricolour (French flag)

o   Cockade (circular badge in national colours)

·        Her statues were placed in public squares to promote national unity.

·        Her image appeared on coins and stamps.

● Germania – Symbol of the German Nation:

·        Germania was the female allegory of Germany.

·        Created by artist Philip Veit.

·        Symbols associated with Germania:

o   Crown of oak leaves (oak tree symbolises heroism in German culture)

o   Often shown with the German national flag in the background.

·        Germania represented the liberal revolution in Germany.

·        A painting of Germania was hung in St. Paul’s Church, where the Frankfurt Parliament met in 1848.

● Importance of Allegories:

·        Helped people visualise the nation as a human-like figure.

·        Used to create national identity and spread patriotic feelings.

Similar symbols used in other countries (e.g., Britannia for Britain, Bharat Mata for India).

Postage Stamps of 1850 – Marianne as a Symbol of the Republic

The 1850 postage stamps featured the figure of Marianne, a powerful emblem of the French Republic. Marianne represents liberty, democracy, and resistance against oppression. These stamps reinforced Republican ideals, visually promoting national identity and the values of freedom and equality in France.

Germania by Philip Veit (1848)

Attribute	Significance
Broken chains	Being freed from oppression; symbol of freedom
Breastplate with eagle	Symbol of the German Empire; represents strength and courage
Crown of oak leaves	Heroism; oak tree is a traditional German symbol of bravery
Sword	Readiness to fight; willingness to defend the nation
Olive branch around the sword	Desire for peace along with strength; willingness to make peace if possible
Black, red and gold tricolour	Flag of the liberal-nationalists in 1848; symbol of unity and freedom (banned earlier)
Rays of the rising sun	Beginning of a new era; symbol of hope and progress

Philip Veit created this painting of Germania on a cotton banner for the Frankfurt Parliament, held in St. Paul’s Church in March 1848. Germania, a national symbol, represents unity and strength for the German people during the revolutionary period. The artwork visually reinforced the ideals of German nationalism and democracy at a crucial moment in history.

The Fallen Germania by Julius Hübner (1850)

This artwork symbolizes the defeat of the German nationalist movement after the failed revolutions of 1848. Germania, the personification of Germany, is depicted lying on the ground, surrounded by broken weapons and a skull, representing loss and destruction. The somber setting highlights the despair and setbacks faced by those who sought German unification and democracy during this turbulent period.

Germania Guarding the Rhine by Lorenz Clasen (1860)

This painting depicts Germania standing as a symbolic guardian of the Rhine River. Holding a sword inscribed with “The German sword protects the German Rhine,” Germania represents national pride and territorial defense. The artwork reflects the patriotic sentiment of 19th-century Germany, emphasizing unity and vigilance in safeguarding the nation’s borders.

The map celebrating the British Empire shows Britannia, the symbol of Britain, sitting proudly over the globe, representing British dominance. Angels carry the banner of "freedom," suggesting that British rule was a civilising mission. Colonies are shown using images of wild animals, forests, and "primitive" people, reflecting the colonial view of them as exotic and uncivilised. The map glorifies imperialism and presents world domination as a source of British national pride.

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NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM

Nationalism and Imperialism

• By the late 19th century, nationalism shifted from being a liberal-democratic ideal to a narrow and aggressive political ideology.
• Nationalist groups became intolerant, ready to go to war, and often clashed with each other.
• European powers began manipulating nationalist sentiments in weaker nations to expand their imperial control.

The Balkans – The Hotbed of Nationalism

• The Balkans included modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro.
• The people were mostly Slavs, and the region was under Ottoman Empire control.
• Romantic nationalism and the decline of the Ottoman Empire triggered demands for independence.
• Balkan nations used history to justify their right to self-rule, claiming they were once free but had been conquered.
• These national struggles were seen as efforts to regain lost freedom.

Conflicts and Rivalries in the Balkans

• Balkan states were jealous of each other, each wanting more territory.
• The region became highly unstable and conflict-prone.
• The Ottoman Empire tried reforming and modernising to regain control—but failed.
• Slavic nationalities clashed in their ambition to dominate, causing regional wars.

Great Power Rivalries

• The Balkans attracted the attention of major European powers—Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary.
• These powers competed for influence, colonies, trade, and military dominance.
• Their involvement escalated tensions and turned local conflicts into international crises.
• This culminated in World War I (1914).

Nationalism Beyond Europe

• In the 19th century, many colonised nations began anti-imperial movements.
• These were nationalist in nature, aiming to create independent nation-states.
• Though inspired by European ideas, each region developed its own form of nationalism.

The idea of a 'nation-state' became widely accepted as natural and necessary.

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THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN NATIONALIST STRUGGLES

·        Women actively participated in political activities during nationalist movements.

·        They formed political associations, started newspapers, and joined political meetings and demonstrations.

·        Their role drew attention during the Frankfurt Parliament (18 May 1848), where the issue of women's political rights was raised.

·        However, women were denied voting rights and could only attend the assembly as spectators.

·        Despite this, their contribution to the nationalist cause remained strong and significant.

·        Delphine de Girardin, a well-educated woman, criticised the exclusion, questioning why women were denied rights even when household workers were granted voting rights.